Science and Technology Education

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An Assessment of Strategies that Enhance the Teaching and Learning of Business Studies at Advanced Level in Imbizo District of Bulawayo Metropolitan Province
(2018) Moyo, C.; Sibanda, L.
The study focused on assessing strategies that enhance the teaching and learning of Business Studies at Advanced Level. Interpretivist paradigm, qualitative approach and case study design were adopted in this study. Purposively selected participants comprised four teachers and twenty-nine students. Data collected through semistructured face to face interviews and focus group interviews were thematically analysed. The study established that schools used case studies, collaborative learning, computer-aided learning and brainstorming to enhance teaching and learning. Nonetheless, the results revealed that the main challenges encountered in using the strategies included lack of finance and locally published textbooks. The study concluded that though schools faced numerous challenges, there were some elements of good practices that had positive impact on instructional delivery of Business Studies. The study recommends that the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education should encourage the Business Studies teachers to author local textbooks which are relevant to the students.
Attitudes of Technical Teacher Education Student Teachers at University on the Use of Information Communication Technology for Learning and Teaching
(2014-09) Dlodlo, Mary
The study provides an indication about the attitudes of female and male student-teachers on the use information communication technologies in learning and teaching. Female learners’ lack of interest against the high interest shown by their male counterparts in learning and teaching has implications on their performance. The introduction of ICT in learning and teaching requires student-teachers as classroom instructors to be competent in using ICTs for a variety of activities in order to impart those skills to younger learners. The study sought to find differences between female and male students in the use of ICT and investigated students’ attitudes to assess whether access to computers, background, stereotype and experiences influenced female and male participants in using ICT in teaching and learning. The objective of the study was to discover attitudes of female and male students towards ICT. The study was also to discover differences in attitudes towards ICT between female and male student teachers and to what extent these differences could be explained by students, lecturers and student-teachers’ experience factors. Female and male students were exposed to the use of computers at university in different education programs that included student teachers from art and design, clothing, textiles and fashion design and computer study areas among others. The study did not reveal wide gender differences in computer attitudes between female and male student teachers as it showed that both female and male students developed computer knowledge and confidence in working with ICT although male students used ICT for experimentation while female students used them more for set assignments. From the results it is recommended that female student teachers use computers more freely in their student activities for the purpose of acquiring a variety of computer skills and for the male student teachers to focus on specific tasks of learning and teaching when using computers.
Challenges faced by female students and the messages conveyed to them by practices of lecturers with regards to sexual harassment. Do lecturers nurture or denature their students?
(2014-09) Tlou, Faith Nomathemba
The aim of the study was to scrutinize what happens to students in a teacher’s college environment in terms of sexual harassment. It further sought to provide insights on (I) whether students are sexually harassed by lecturers (ii) the messages this sends to students (iii) how students cope with such experiences and the values they consequently pick because of such experiences. The research was located in the interpretive paradigm hence it adopted qualitative approach and used a case study design. Purposive sampling was used to select three college managers, ten lecturers and twenty five student participants. Seven of the students were interviewed individually using semi-structured interviews while 18 of them constituted 3 focus groups of six students each that completed the data collection by interview. The study found that there was sexual harassment of students by some lecturers in the colleges. The study also established that students got the message that some lecturers did not value students and on occasion treated them in a degrading manner. The study also established that students used some strategies to cope including avoidance, appealing to authorities and counselling. The study recommended that in cases of sexual harassment, specially trained officers in handling sexual harassment cases for reporting such cases be put in place so that in view of the culture of fear of victimization and stigmatization, students may be forth- coming in reporting such sensitive and personal matters so that these are curtailed
Constraints affecting men's participation in early childhood education (ECE): Implications for intervention.
(2020) Mathwasa, J.; Sibanda, L.
A qualitative study grounded in the interpretive paradigm was adopted where four men, four women and four educators were purposively selected, responded to the semi-structured interviews. The aim of the study was to establish the constraints affecting men’s participation in the early childhood education of their children. The researchers observed all the ethical concerns. Data was analysed in easily understood themes. The findings revealed that although all stakeholders fully understood the importance of men in the early childhood education their participation was still minimal indicating that they still faced constraints. The constraints included work-related absence, broken relationships, lack of interest, traditional and cultural beliefs, stereotypes and mothers’ monopoly on the children. The study concluded that for the achievement of early childhood goals, men should improve their participation in early education of children. The study recommends that all stakeholders make a retrospect into how they have contributed to the constraints that men face in their endeavour to change the status quo.
Design of a Flood Water Powered Water Pump
(National University of Science and Technology (NUST)., 2007-07-17) Dewa, Mncedisi; Mhlanga, Samson; Maphosa, N.; Phuthi, Nduduzo
The paper set to discuss the research to develop a machine that collects water from flooded rivers and pumps it to a reservoir so that it can be used to water crops during the interludes of dry spells that characterize the Zimbabwe rain season. This water is not necessary intended to irrigate the crop on full scale, but just to bridge the crop and sustain it during the critical weeks of the dry spells which usually stresses the crop beyond recovery even after the rains resume. The simple machine designed relies totally on the force of the flood water to pump water from the river and send it to the reservoir, thus making it possible for the machine to be used in the rural areas where there is no electricity. The cost of the model that was built is given as well as the pictorial view of the model.
E-Learning Environments in Undergraduate Design and Technology Courses
(2014) Phuthi, Nduduzo; Molwane, Olefile Bethuel
When e-learning and other information and communication technologies (ICT’s) became accepted in both distance and face-to-face modes of learning in tertiary education, expectations were high that they would, within a reasonable time frame, yield visible and perhaps irrefutable gains in course delivery strategies and revolutionise both learning content knowledge and access to it. In developing countries it was hoped that there would be benefits in tapping into a knowledge revolution currently dominated by industrialised countries, who are by far the greatest contributors and beneficiaries. The University of Botswana’s (UB) efforts, initiated in 2001, at technological transformation in teaching and learning for meaningful quality processes and outcomes have been evaluated by researchers, reviewers and participants. Comments have been made such as, ‘substantial progress, but many challenges” “very useful teaching support tool for large classes, but there is need to address key background issues” , “students share learning through educational technologies, but appropriate learning environments are required” . It has been evident that although a lot has been done at institutional management level to promote adoption and implementation of e-learning as a rule at UB, the ideal situation has not materialised. Much of the problem seems to emanate from the interaction between key players, such as top management, the teaching staff and students. This paper reports on an on-going qualitative study that was carried out in order to negotiate and establish acceptable quality and effectiveness of e-learning envisaged by both the staff and students in a course that was not online at the time, in preparation of launching the course online in the next cycle. The action learning research study aimed at constructing an environment and a disposition towards e-learning mutually negotiated between students and their lecturers. Data was collected through various student-lecturer and student-student interaction processes such as classroom lecture, internet search, group presentations, tests, assignments, classroom observations, questionnaires, and video script analyses. Preliminary findings indicate that most students are enthusiastic about adopting e-learning if they have been adequately pre-oriented into the method and are consistently guided by caring and competent staff. They also will appreciate quality and effective learning if this is negotiated with someone who can articulate standards of performance.
Educational leadership and learner achievement: contemporary issues
(National University of Science and Technology, 2015) Shava, George, N.
The context of school leadership in Africa has been changing, which is reflected particularly in numerous past and ongoing educational reforms and school restructuring movements. At the macro level, the main trend of educational reforms include re-establishment of new national vision and new educational aims for schools, restructuring educational systems at different levels for new educational aims and market driving, privatizing, cost sharing, greater self management and self governance and diversifying school education throughout the world. At the meso level, there is increased parental and community involvement in school leadership. At the school site level, the major trends consist of ensuring educational quality, standards and accountability. At the operational level, the main trends include the use of Information and Technology (ICT) in learning and teaching and applying new technologies in management, and making a paradigm shift in learning, teaching and assessment. This paper examines educational leadership and learner achievement in schools. In this article I argue that, in many parts of the world, including both developed and developing countries, there is increasing recognition that schools require effective leadership schools are to provide the best possible education for learners. I conclude that the combined direct and indirect effects of school leadership on learner achievement may be small but educationally significant.
Effects of school leadership in enhancing learners' achievement in South African schools
(2020) Shava, G.N.; Sibanda, L.
Introduction: School leadership has increasingly been gaining attention from educational policymakers, and the entire educational society. Research has also confirmed that school principals are essential for developing and maintaining effective school systems. The role of school leadership in schools is highly complex and dynamic such that strategies are needed to change underperforming schools. This article reported on a small scale exploratory qualitative study that investigated the effects of school leadership in enhancing the learning outcomes of a cohort of schools in a rural setting in South Africa. Purpose: The purpose of the study was to analyse the role of principals in enhancing learning achievement in schools. Methodology: The study took a qualitative research approach with an interpretive epistemological and constructivist ontological perspective. Qualitative evidence was collected from six schools in the same district through semi-structured interview question with educators and school principals. Purposive sampling techniques were used to select information-rich cases from the schools and in selecting the schools. Results: Grounded in the accounts of our study participants, results from the study indicated that school principals are the cornerstones of achieving quality teaching and learning through motivating educators, training and providing distributed leadership Recommendations: From the study findings, it was recommended that there is need to improve the basic unit of the educational institution which include structural, cultural and agential conditions to enhance the effective operations of school principals. There is a need to motivate and enhance existing forms of agency in ways that expand learners’ achievement.
Enhancing Students’ Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling Educators
(2020) Mathwasa, J.; Sibanda , L.
As students enter high school, they face a myriad risk of adverse outcomes such as pressure to perform or drop out; peer influence to conform or be an outcast; drug and substance abuse; delinquency, poverty and possibly abuse and neglect. It is also at this stage where most teenage students experience identity crisis. As a result, students’ self-efficacy is then impaired, and their resilience diminished with every stress and trauma they experience. Thus far, there has been scanty research in utilising classroom guidance in understanding what factors impact or not, and how school counsellors choose to engage in classroom guidance. While much guidance and counselling in schools has focused on career choices, sexual and physical harassment, and perhaps, bereavement, abuse and neglect, very little is known on how detrimental lack of self-efficacy and resilience is to the high school student. Even though educators aim to cover the academic syllabus, it is also essential that operative guidance and counselling should also pay equal attention to the social syllabus. This chapter aims to explore the factors that are detrimental to students’ self-efficacy, resilience and coping mechanism; how classroom guidance and counselling can reduce the risk of the adverse outcomes in the society.
Grounded theory in Educational Research: A literature review of features and processes
(2022) Shava, G.N.; Tlou, F.N.; Shonhiwa, S.
Grounded theory which is a systematic methodology of discovering theory from data in social science and educational research is considered a general methodology and a way of thinking about conceptualizing data. Using Grounded theory, meaning is negotiated and understood through interactions with others in a social process. This desk top research provides an overview of the features of grounded theory, and in the process, activities involved in using grounded theory are highlighted. Further weaknesses and strengths of grounded theory are discussed. In this article we argue that using an appropriate research method for an inquiry is critical to successful educational research.
Implementation of strategies used to maintain positive discipline in secondary schools in Bulawayo Metropolitan Province , Zimbabwe : Towards a holistic positive discipline management model
(2015) Mlalazi., Lwazi
The use of positive discipline management strategies in Zimbabwean schools has sparked debate among education practitioners, members of the civil society and other stakeholders. The arguments for and against the use of positive discipline management strategies has been triggered by the concerns over the use of negative discipline strategies in most schools in Zimbabwe. In the recent past, many stories have appeared on media showing the abuse of power by some education practitioners leading to this outcry. In response to this on-going debate, this study explored strategies used by educationists to maintain discipline in Bulawayo Metropolitan Province secondary schools in Zimbabwe, paying particular attention to the implementation of positive discipline management strategies. The study was located in the interpretive paradigm and it used the qualitative approach, and case study design to examine the issues under review. Purposive sampling technique was used to select participants who were rich informants and these included Education Officers, school heads, school counsellors, members of the disciplinary committees, prefects and School Development Committee chairpersons. Data was solicited through face to face interviews, focus groups and document analysis. The study established that positive discipline management strategies which comprised the code of conduct, guidance and counselling, teaching social skills, school-wide positive behaviour support, communication, positive reinforcement, modelling positive behaviour and training were implemented in the selected secondary schools but in varied ways. In contrast, the study revealed that selected schools faced challenges as some teachers still used traditional methods of disciplining learners which were unlawfully administered, there was also lack of qualified counsellors, insufficient financial resources which hindered the training of members of staff and parents, and limited transport services which impeded the monitoring of implementation of positive discipline management strategies in secondary schools by the Education Officers. Despite the hindrances experienced, this study found that there were pockets of good practices in implementing positive discipline management strategies. For example, during the implementation of the code of conduct strategy, the learners’ input was included in crafting the codes of conduct, discipline issues were also included in the parents’ meeting agenda, and learners who breached the code of conduct were counselled. In implementing the guidance and counselling strategy learners actively participated in clubs, peer counselling, accessed counselling services anytime regardless of the counsellors’ tight schedules, counselling facilities were improvised, and the school counsellors used multiple counselling methods to respond to the needs of individual learners. It was further revealed that in the implementation of the teaching social skills strategy learners were involved in community service. As for monitoring and support, the study found that the Education Officers organised workshops and facilitated in training of school heads and teachers regardless of the transport challenges they were facing. The study concluded that selected secondary schools used several strategies to maintain positive discipline and these included rewarding learners who have shown good conduct throughout the year, inviting parents to school if their children have shown unbecoming behaviour and use of prefects and members of staff as role models. Additionally, the members of school community were involved inthe implementation process in different capacities and roles. For effective implementation of positive discipline strategies, the study recommended that, there should be interactive participation of all members of the school community and integration of all positive discipline management strategies during the implementation process. Furthermore, based on the findings of the study and extensive literature search, the researcher proposed an alternative model for implementing positive discipline management strategies that may result in good practices in secondary schools.
Implementing Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Education: A Case of Four Single Sex Secondary Schools in Bulawayo Metropolitan Province, Zimbabwe
(2018) Ncube, P.; Sibanda, L.
The purpose of the study was to examine the implementation of STEM education in Bulawayo Metropolitan Province single sex Secondary Schools. This study was qualitative in nature, guided by interpretivist paradigm, and used case study design. The population encompassed seven single sex secondary schools. Participants who included one district schools inspector, four school heads, four heads of departments, sixteen science teachers and forty learners were purposively sampled from four schools. Data were collected through face-to-face semistructured interviews and focus group discussions, coded and analysed thematically. The results of the study indicated that standard laboratories were available to facilitate the implementation of STEM education in single sex secondary schools. The study further revealed that most of the teachers who taught STEM subjects had relevant qualifications and used various methods to encourage learner participation in STEM education. Additionally, the study established that learners were actively involved in science exhibitions and olympiads which gave learners hands-on experience in STEM subjects. It also emerged from the findings that some female learners are highly confident in taking up STEM subjects and are not afraid to compete against their male counterparts. However, the findings of the study revealed that the implementation of STEM education in single sex schools was constrained by lack of well-equipped science laboratories, lack of financial resources to purchase learning materials, especially chemicals, large class sizes, negative attitude towards STEM subjects by some learners, and limited parental involvement in their children’s learning. The study concluded that single sex schools created an enabling environment for learner engagement and afforded both male and female learners equal access to STEM education despite the challenges encountered. The study recommends that the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education should expedite the construction of well-equipped laboratories and provision of material and financial resources.
Implementing Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Education: A Case of Four Single Sex Secondary Schools in Bulawayo Metropolitan Province, Zimbabwe
(2018) Ncube, P.; Sibanda, L.
Province single sex Secondary Schools. This study was qualitative in nature, guided by interpretivist paradigm, and used case study design. The population encompassed seven single sex secondary schools. Participants who included one district schools inspector, four school heads, four heads of departments, sixteen science teachers and forty learners were purposively sampled from four schools. Data were collected through face-to-face semistructured interviews and focus group discussions, coded and analysed thematically. The results of the study indicated that standard laboratories were available to facilitate the implementation of STEM education in single sex secondary schools. The study further revealed that most of the teachers who taught STEM subjects had relevant qualifications and used various methods to encourage learner participation in STEM education. Additionally, the study established that learners were actively involved in science exhibitions and olympiads which gave learners hands-on experience in STEM subjects. It also emerged from the findings that some female learners are highly confident in taking up STEM subjects and are not afraid to compete against their male counterparts. However, the findings of the study revealed that the implementation of STEM education in single sex schools was constrained by lack of well-equipped science laboratories, lack of financial resources to purchase learning materials, especially chemicals, large class sizes, negative attitude towards STEM subjects by some learners, and limited parental involvement in their children’s learning. The study concluded that single sex schools created an enabling environment for learner engagement and afforded both male and female learners equal access to STEM education despite the challenges encountered. The study recommends that the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education should expedite the construction of well-equipped laboratories and provision of material and financial resources.
Indigenous Design and Production Entrepreneurship: Sector Performance Audits and Proactive Support
(Bulletin of the Centre for Academic Development, 2008-03) Phuthi, Nduduzo; Letsatsi, M.T.
There is little doubt, if at all, that one of the most urgent goals for developing Africa is genuine economic emancipation, which would, in turn, expedite solutions to the persistent problems of poverty, disease, ignorance, civil strife, and many others. This emancipation requires deliberate, proactive home-grown initiatives that gradually unshackle economically deprived nations from dependence on imported expertise, ideas, tools and products, to a culture of planned local design, production and trade in globally competitive wares and products. Such a mindset has evolved over the years in industrialised countries through steady and cumulative growth from small to medium to large-scale business enterprises. In this paper we propose a systematic audit for small and medium-scale enterprises in the design and production business which would assist to identify the necessary support needed to propel the local small and medium-scale sector into national and global competitiveness.
Influential Factors to Financial Management in Chegutu District Secondary Schools of Mashonaland West Province, Zimbabwe
(2020) Ndhlovu, J.; Sibanda, L.; Mathwasa, J.
The study explored factors that influence financial management in Chegutu District Secondary Schools of Mashonaland West Province, Zimbabwe. The study was stimulated by the serious financial challenges in secondary schools as characterised by failure to follow laid down procedures, disagreements, inadequate training and lack of knowledge by both school heads and SDC members in managing finances. The interpretive paradigm and qualitative approach guided the study. A case study design was adopted and purposively sampled participants constituted five school heads, five School Development Committee chairpersons, five School Development Committee treasurers and five school bursars. Thematically analysed data was collected through semi-structured interviews and document analysis. The findings revealed that manuals and policy circulars influence the way schools formulate their budgets as they give clear steps that should be followed. It also emerged from the study that the school finance committee is responsible for drawing the school budget after consultation with other stakeholders. It was found that training of school heads, School Development Committee members and bursars influence financial management to a larger extent and there is a very strong relationship between financial management training and effectiveness of financial management in secondary schools. The study concluded that good working relationship among stakeholders and lack of knowledge by both school heads and School Development Committee members in managing school finances greatly influence the way they execute their duty of managing school finances. The study recommends further research that explores strategies that can be established for improving the way schools manage finances.
Integrating Child Art as a Pedagogical Strategy for Teaching Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics at Early Childhood Development Level in Bulawayo Central District, Zimbabwe
(2023) Manokore, K.; Sibanda, L.; Shava, G.; Mangena, A.; Muzari, T.; Sibanda, Z.; Mkwelie, N.
As knowledge regarding human development and learning continues evolving due to the global influences it has created an undeniable opportunity in researching on contemporary educational practice. Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) is influencing educational practice from basic to tertiary education. This study acknowledges that teachers are essential and direct agents to supporting early STEM learning. Thus, this study is predominately a qualitative research approach with an interpretive epistemological and constructivist ontological perspective. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews from ten purposively sampled Early Childhood Development (ECD) teacher participants and formal analysis of 30 child art production (visual analysis of artefacts). The study affirmed that, art practice at ECD is a compatible strategy for early STEMlearning. It was found that ECD learners’ attitudes are receptive of art practice as a constructivist approach. The results revealed that teachers used learner development checklists and child art as a tool to measure learner development and progress in STEM. The findings of the study established that teachers and learners encountered challenges such as limited teaching and learning resources, lack of expertise among some teachers, parental interference and content overload. Despite the indicated challenges, the study concluded that the integration of child art as a pedagogical strategy enhanced imparting of STEM skills among learners at ECD level. The study recommended that the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education should capacitate ECD teachers through professional development programmes that focus on ECD STEM learning and teaching.
Issue-Based Learning and Transformative Pedagogies: Zimbabwe
(2023) Sibanda, L.; Phuthi, N.
Managing Learner Behaviour in a Virtual Classroom: Experiences of Selected Private High School Teachers in Bulawayo Metropolitan Province, Zimbabwe
(2021) Sibanda, L.
The study examined experiences of private high school teachers in managing learners’ behaviour in virtual classrooms. The study was motivated by paradigm shift from physical classroom to virtual classroom in most educational institutions globally because of corona virus pandemic. A qualitative study, rooted in interpretive paradigm employed case study design. The participants who constituted ten teachers were purposively selected from two private high schools in Bulawayo Metropolitan Province. The data solicited through emailed openended questionnaire were transcribed, coded and thematically analysed. The findings revealed that there is a mixture of good and bad behaviour in a virtual classroom just like in a physical classroom. The results showed that private high school teachers have adopted diverse strategies to manage learners’ behaviour in virtual classrooms such as use of collaborative learning, ensuring that learners’ videos are on throughout the lesson, constantly referring to learners by their names to remain alert, punctuality in starting online lessons and marking attendance register. The study established that private high school teachers experienced innumerable challenges in managing learners’ behaviour in virtual classrooms. It emerged that some learners absent themselves from lessons although they have all resources supporting their learning, and there was lack of collaboration from some parents who were reluctant to guide their children in behaviour modification. The results further suggest that the private high schools support the management of learners’ behaviour through various ways which include providing timetable which is shared with learners and parents to ensure that learners do not miss the lessons and distributing school rules with consequences well spelt out, to learners and parents. It emerged that the school heads regularly engage learners to moral and values sessions. The study established that the parents are appraised of their children’s attendance and performance through a weekly summary report sent by the schools. The study concludes that the selected private schools apply whole school approach to manage learners’ behaviour in virtual learning. The study recommends that private high schools should train parents to acquaint them with roles they should play in assisting their children in virtual learning.
Modelling Positive Behaviour: A Vital Strategy in Instilling Positive Discipline Among Secondary School Learners.
(2020-07) Sibanda, L.; Mantwasa, J.
This qualitative study, guided by interpretive paradigm, explored how secondary schools use modelling positive behaviour strategy to instil positive discipline among learners in Bulawayo Metropolitan Province, Zimbabwe. The study was enthused by the abolition of corporal punishment, exclusion due to delinquent behaviour and adoption of positive, inclusive discipline strategies to maintain order in schools. A case study design purposively sampled four schools in which four school heads, twenty members of the disciplinary committee, four school counsellors, two education officers, four School Development Committee chairpersons and forty prefects participated. Data collected through focus group interviews, semi-structured interviews and document analysis were thematically analysed. The results indicated that secondary schools adopted the modelling positive behaviour strategy to instil positive discipline among learners. New staff members’ orientation focused on conduct, modelling of positive behaviour whenever teachers, learners and parents interact as they perform various activities in the school environment. The study also established that prefects as role models were afforded opportunity to lead assembly sessions. The study concluded that in spite of a few cases of misconduct, it is evident that modelling positive behaviour strategy produced affirmative outcomes in schools understudy. The study recommends further research that explores other strategies that could be adopted by schools to maintain positive discipline particularly in rural schools.
Needs-based knowledge processing through university- community partnerships: higher education inroads into rural community development in Zimbabwe
(The UNESCO Forum on Higher Education Research and Knowledge, 2008-11) Phuthi, Nduduzo; Gundani, M.P.D.; Sibanda, Isaiah M.
Knowledge, the ultimate competitive advantage for any modern community or organization, gives its possessor a unique and inherently protected commodity for survival and development. Today's universities are among those organizations credited for spearheading and sustaining the on-going knowledge revolution. In developing countries, universities have come to playa key role within their own societies in a wide range of developmental issues even though they often find themselves acutely outclassed in the competitive international knowledge network (Altbach, 1998). Notably, many universities need sensitization for them to prioritize the integration of local and alien knowledge that should address broader sustainable development needs as perceived by the affected communities. Comparatively, the superior military, economic, intellectual and technological accomplishments of industrialized countries give some of their universities extensive, jealously-guarded power, prompting them to assert themselves as 'central' institutions within their countries and in the global knowledge arena. The third world universities remain 'peripheral', tending to copy developments from abroad, producing little that is original, and generally not at the frontiers of knowledge. Within developing countries, the Western-sourced education, science, technology and Western human development models appear to perpetrate a socio-economic and knowledge gap among citizens, creating a conservative traditional culture alongside a neo-Western one.

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